Normal Refractive Error Children
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article Abstract INFANTS AND CHILDREN FROM BIRTH TO SIX YEARS CHILDREN IN THE SCHOOL YEARS NOTES ON MANAGEMENT CONCLUSION REFERENCES Related expected refractive error by age Content Citing Literature Clinical and Experimental Optometry Explore this journal > Explore
Average Refractive Error By Age
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Normal Refractive Error In Infants
Characterisation of Cl- transporter and channels in experimentally induced myopic chick eyes View issue TOC Volume 94, Issue 6 November 2011 Pages 514–527 To prescribe or not to prescribe? Guidelines for spectacle prescribing in infants and childrenAuthorsSusan J Leat BSc PhD FCOptom FAAOCorresponding author School of Optometry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. E-mail: leat@uwaterloo.caDr Susan J Leat, School of cycloplegic refraction prescribing guidelines Optometry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2E 3G1, CANADA, E-mail: leat@uwaterloo.caSearch for more papers by this authorFirst published: 3 July 2011Full publication historyDOI: 10.1111/j.1444-0938.2011.00600.xView/save citationCited by: 9 articles Citation tools Set citation alert Check for new citations Citing literature Dr Susan J Leat, School of Optometry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2E 3G1, CANADA, E-mail: leat@uwaterloo.caAbstractThis paper discusses the considerations for prescribing a refractive correction in infants and children up to and including school age, with reference to the current literature. The focus is on children who do not have other disorders, for example, binocular vision anomalies, such as strabismus, significant heterophoria or convergence excess. However, refractive amblyogenic factors are discussed, as is prescribing for refractive amblyopia. Based on this discussion, guidelines are proposed, which indicate when to prescribe spectacles and what amount of refractive error should be corrected. It may be argued that these are premature because there are many questions that remain unanswered and we do not have the quality of evidence that we would like; the clinician, however, must make decisions on whether and what to prescri
allows you to search in the languages below. Please select your preference. Topics will continue to be in English. 简体中文 繁體中文 Deutsch English Español Français prescribing after cycloplegic refraction Italiano 日本語 한국어 * Português *Currently in beta testing. Languages About Us News pediatric refractive error norms & Events Contact Us Help Why UpToDate? Product Editorial Subscription Options Subscribe Official reprint from UpToDate www.uptodate.com ©2016 UpToDate Print cycloplegic refraction optometry today | Back Refractive errors in children AuthorsDavid K Coats, MDDavid K Coats, MDProfessor of Ophthalmology Baylor College of MedicineEvelyn A Paysse, MDEvelyn A Paysse, MDSection Editor — Pediatric Ophthalmology Professor of Ophthalmology and http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1444-0938.2011.00600.x/full Pediatrics Baylor College of MedicineSection EditorRichard A Saunders, MDRichard A Saunders, MDSection Editor — Pediatric Ophthalmology Professor of Ophthalmology and Pediatrics Storm Eye Institute, Medical University of South CarolinaDeputy EditorCarrie Armsby, MD, MPHCarrie Armsby, MD, MPHDeputy Editor — Pediatrics University of Massachusetts School of Medicine INTRODUCTIONThis topic will review refractive errors in children. Vision assessment, strabismus, cataracts, and amblyopia are discussed separately. (See "Visual development and http://www.uptodate.com/contents/refractive-errors-in-children vision assessment in infants and children" and "Evaluation and management of strabismus in children" and "Cataract in children" and "Amblyopia in children: Classification, screening, and evaluation".)Refractive errors in adults are discussed separately. (See "Visual impairment in adults: Refractive disorders and presbyopia".)NORMAL REFRACTIONRefraction is the bending of light rays as they pass from one transparent medium to another medium with a different density. During vision, light that is reflected from an object is refracted by the cornea and lens and focused on the retina.In emmetropia (an eye with normal refractive error), parallel light rays from a distant object are brought into focus precisely on the retina, and a clear image is perceived (movie 1). Perfect emmetropia rarely exists. The majority of individuals have some degree of refractive error, although most do not require correction.REFRACTIVE ERRORSRefractive errors are present when the optical image does not accurately focus on the retina. There are three types: myopia (movie 2), hyperopia (movie 3), and astigmatism (movie 4). Subscribers log in here To continue reading this article, you must log in with your personal, hospital, or group practice subscription. For more information or to purchase a personal subscription, click below on the
Asked Questions Español Condiciones Chinese Conditions Refractive Errors in Children En Español Read in Chinese How does the eye focus light? In order to see clearly, light rays from an object must focus onto the inner back layer https://www.aapos.org/terms/conditions/91 of the eye [See figure 1]. The eye works like a camera. It has an opening at the front (the pupil), a focusing mechanism (the cornea and crystalline lens), and a light-sensing portion at the back (the retina). If light rays are not focused on the retina, a refractive error is present. The refractive errors are: myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism [See figures 2 and 3]. refractive error What is hyperopia (farsightedness)? Hyperopia occurs when light rays focus behind the retina (because the eye is either too short or has too little focusing power) and causes near and distant objects to appear blurry. The signs and symptoms of farsightedness are more severe the closer the object of regard. Some hyperopia is normal in childhood and correction is typically not required. Children can normal refractive error compensate for this on their own using their natural focusingmechanism (accommodation). A large amount of hyperopia may require correction with converging or plus (+) power glasses, particularly when associated with crossed eyes (accommodative esotropia). Hyperopia usually increases in early childhood and then decreases during preteen to early teenage years. Contact lenses and laser surgery are alternatives to spectacles at the appropriate age. What is myopia (nearsightedness)? Myopia occurs when light rays focus in front of the retina because the eye is too long or has excessive focusing power. Objects in the distance appear blurry and as they get closer to the eye, are seen more clearly. This condition may be inherited or associated with premature birth and can occur at any age. The prevalence of myopia is low in US children under the age of eight, but much higher in Asian countries. Diverging or minus (-) power glasses focus the light rays on the retina and improve vision. Myopia usually progresses yearly and stabilizes by the late teens to early twenties. There is currently no widely accepted treatment to stop progression. Some recent epidemiological data suggests that more time spent outdoors was associated with less myopic progression. There is no specific evidence that excessive use of computer